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Works Cited
Books Alexander, Alison and Jarice Hanson, eds. Taking Sides: Clashing Views on Controversial Issues in Mass Media and Society. Guildford, CN: McGraw-Hill/Dushkin, 2001.
One of the many controversial topics which Taking Sides discusses is
body image in the media, more specifically whether the media's proposed body
image affects only girls. There are essays both for and against Claude-Pierre, Peggy. The Secret Language of Eating Disorders. New York: Random House, 1997. Prevention of eating disorders and overcoming eating disorders are the main topics of Claude-Pierre's book. Unfortunately, neither of those topics directly pertains to our topic. Though the book briefly discusses causes of eating disorders, the media is not listed as a cause. There are some moving accounts of personal struggles with eating disorders and of the emotional stress that eating disorders cause, but little else was relevant to this paper. Dibattista, Rosemary Genova. Female Body Image: A Hot Issue. United States: Enslow Publishers, Inc., 2002. Though this book addressed many different types of image, the only one significant value was the "media image. In this section Dibattista references various studies and quotes numerous teenagers, getting a reaction from them about the media. However, the most valueable aspect of this chapter was the discussion about BMI (Body Mass Index) and celebrities, and more importantly, how BMI is calculated.
Nardozzi, Jennifer A. A Multifactor Analysis of Disordered
Eating: Schemas, Gender, Roles, and the Effects of the Media on Female
Adolescents’ Body Satisfaction. Dayton, Ohio: Wright State University,
1998.
Upon
initial review this source seems excellent, unfortunately it does not go
into great detail about the exact link between the media and eating
disorders. It talks more about the media’s effect on gender roles and
the media’s portrayal of thin woman and men, but it does discuss the
increase in eating disorders.
Furthermore, many of the sources used to write this are from the mid-1980s
and probably are a bit outdated. Myers, David G. Psychology: Myers in Modules. United States: Worth Publishers, 2001. Any psychology textbook would be beneficial for exploring self-esteem, body image, or especially eating disorders, and Myers' is no different. This textbook provides a good basis for causes behind eating disorders. It describes how low self-esteem and body dissatisfaction can eventually lead to eating disorders or other destructive behaviors.
Hard Copy Periodicals Agliata, Daniel and Stacey Tantleff-Dunn. "The Impact of Media Exposure on Males' Body Image." Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 23 (2004): 7-22. Effects of the media on males, specifically through magazines are discussed throughout this study. Agliata and Tantleff-Dunn tie the unrealistic view of men in magazines (and airbrushing) to a higher body dissatisfaction for men. Unlike many other studies, this study concentrates solely on the media's effect on men, which makes it a unique and valuable source. Botta, Renée A. "For Your Health? The Relationship Between Magazine Reading and Adolescents' Body Image and Eating Disturbances." Sex Roles. 48 (2003): 389-399. Botta discusses how different types of magazines portray different body images and how these images affect men and women. Fashion magazines negatively affect women's body image, and health magazines negatively affect men's body image. Botta states that these unrealistic body depictions in popular magazines eventually can lead to eating disorders. Freydkin, Donna. "Doctored Cover Photos Add up to Controversy." USA Today. 17 June 2003. Airbrushing or cutting body parts have become big issues for magazines, and this article addresses recent instances with Julia Roberts and Jennifer Aniston, among others. The article is a valuable source because it gives a negative reaction to airbrushing and body distortion, which are prime ways the media creates unrealistic body image. Groesz, Lisa M., et. al. "The Effect of Experimental Presentation of Thin Media Images on Body Satisfaction: A Meta-Analytic Review." International Journal of Eating Disorders. 31 (2002): 1-16. Groesz et. al. showed various pictures, ranging from models to houses, to young women to see how body image was affected by the various pictures. They found that body satisfaction was significantly lower after viewing the models rather than any other picture and also speak of how boys and girls learn at a young age how their bodies are used. Halliwell, Emma and Helga Dittmar. "Does Size Matter? The Impact of Model's Body Size on Women's Body-focused Anxiety and Advertising Effectivness." Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 23 (2004): 104-122. In performing a study that had women of various ages view models, Halliwell and Dittmar concluded that these media images have a greater effect on younger women. They found that women around age forty generally start to be less concerned about body image but that these unrealistic media images cause self-esteem and body satisfaction problems in young women. "Images of Thing Models Boost Dieter's Self-Image." Health & Medicine Week. 10 May 2004: 975-976 Heath & Medicine Week reported that a psychology professor found that some women's self-esteem was helped by viewing thin models because it made them more motivated to lose weight. However, the article also ominously reports that young people may see a celebrity and take a diet too far and even develop an eating disorder. Joshi, Ramona, C. Peter Herman, and Janet Polivy. “Self-Enhancing Effects of Exposure to Thin-Body Images.” International Journal of Eating Disorders. 35 (2004): 333-341. Joshi, Herman, and Polivy conducted about an experiment conducted to see if thin-body media images affect mood, self-esteem, and self-image ratings of certain college age students. Some of the students were restrained eaters and some unrestrained and results showed varying degrees of self-esteem and self-image feelings for the various students. King, Natalie, et. al. "The Effect of Body Dissatisfaction on Women's Perceptions of Female Celebrities." International Journal of Eating Disorders. 27 (2000): 341-347. King et. al. tested how various women reacted when viewing thin, average, and overweight models. Most underestimated the size of the thin models (thought they were slimmer than in reality), and everyone overestimated the size of the bigger models (thought they weighed more than they did). This study helped solidify the claim that many women think those in the media are even thinner than they actually are. “Media Exposure Drives How Satisfied Women and Girls are About Body Image.” Health & Week 2 February 2004: 17-18. Though it agrees with our viewpoint, this article provides little help because of its brevity and its general assertions. It cites a few meaningful experiments conducted using thin-ideal media exposure, but, ultimately, the article goes into little detail and makes no unique claims. Pinhas, Leora, et. al. "The Effects of the Ideal of Female Beauty on Mood and Body Satisfaction." International Journal of Eating Disorders. 25 (1999): 223-226. Pinhas et. al. performed an experiment to test women's emotions after viewing media images. In general women felt noticeably more angry or more depressed, which are both vital points to tie media body image to body dissatisfaction. Unfortunately, the study was very specific and did not reach any broad conclusions, and the source is very brief and has little other useful information. Schooler, Deborah, et. al. "Who's that Girl: Television's Role in the Body Image Development of Young White and Black Women." Psychology Women's Quarterly. 28 (2004): 38-47. Though this source primarily divided up television influence into race issues, it also contained a bit of general discussion about television which was helpful. It asserts that because women on television have unrealistic body types and these images are continually shown on television, that these thin-body ideals are more likely to become ingrained into the minds of the youth. “Simplistic Explanations Regarding Women and Body Image Neglect Other Factors.” Women’s Health Weekly 22 Apr 2004: 65. This article could be valuable because it gives an unusual viewpoint for the connection between female body image and the media. It faults women who enjoy the media for subjecting themselves to the negative images, but yet cites an experiment that deemed media to blame for eating disorders. Unfortunately, the article is very short and will not be a good source of extensive research. Sypeck, Mia Foley, et. al. "No Longer Just a Pretty Face: Fashion Magazines' Depiction of Ideal Female Beauty from 1959 to 1999." International Journal of Eating Disorders. 36 (2004): 342-347. Fashion magazines, especially the size of models used, have changed greatly over the years, and Sypeck et. al. address these changes. Models are much thinner currently, and most magazines show entire body pictures rather than only a face. This suggests that the media's created body image focuses more on a thin body rather than a pretty face or beautiful smile. Tiggemann, Marika. “Media Exposure, Body Dissatisfaction, and Disordered Eating – Television and Magazines are not the Same!” European Eating Disorders Review 11 (2003): 418-430. The write-up Tiggemann's experiment will be an effective source especially because it distinguishes between media affects in magazines and on TV. Tiggemann found that magazines tend to give girls a negative body image, leading to eating disorders, while TV makes girls have lower self-esteem or a bad self-image, but usually does not lead to eating disorders. Tiggemann, Marika. "Role of Television in Adolescent Women's Body Dissatisfaction and Drive for Thinness." International Journal of Eating Disorders. 20 (1996): 199-203. Though this study intended to test the amount of television watched and find a link between this fact and body dissatisfaction, the study instead concluded that the specific televisions shows watched were more important. Tiggemann deduces that not total television viewed impacts body satisfaction but that specific shows--soap operas, music videos, etc--cause a drive for thinness or body dissatisfaction. Wilson, Nona L. and Anne E. Blackhurst. "Food Advertising and Eating Disorders: Marking Body Dissatisfaction, the Drive for Thinness, and Dieting in Women's Magazines." Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education & Development. 38 (1999): 1-11. Because advertising, especially diet advertisements, are a key part of the media and the media's effect on body image, this source was excellent. It covers all aspects of body image and intricately links body image issues to various advertising campaigns or strategies used by the media. This source was also useful because it cited some specific advertisements which made for good pictures on the webpage.
Web-based Periodicals Bennett, Courtney. "Fan Club Confessions: Teens Underestimate Influence of Celebrity Idols." Psychology Today. Jan 2004. 20 Nov 2004. <http://cms.psychologytoday.com/articles/pto-20020101-000008.html> Although Bennett's article does not directly discuss the link between the media and negative body image, it notes the large influence celebrities have on young adults. The article cites studies that have discovered the impact of celebrities as idols or role models was more than previously thought. Furthermore, many people try to base their lifestyle or habits off of a celebrity role model. Katz, Nikki. "Eating Disorder Statistics." Women's Issues. 2004. 20 Nov 2004. <http://womensissues.about.com/cs/eatingdisorders/a/edstats.htm>. Though short, this article is extremely helpful because of its many statistics about eating disorders. Statistics include total number of cases of eating disorders, when eating disorders mostly arise, and what kinds of eating disorders are most prevalent. It is an excellent source for mere statistics but not for any further information.
Websites Apodaca, Greg. Greg's Digital Retouching Portfolio. 2004. 20 Nov 2004. <http://homepage.mac.com/gapodaca/digital/bikini/index.html>. Prepare to be shocked upon visiting this site. Apodaca is a professional airbrusher and has many examples on his site of what people have wanted him to airbrush. He discusses how some of it is simply ridiculous, but he does what he is told. The two pictures of the young women give excellent examples of what magazines do to their models. Celebrities with Eating Disorders. 2004. CaringOnline. 20 Nov 2004. <http://www.caringonline.com/eatdis/people.htm>. A long, in depth list of celebrities with eating disorders appears on this page. Each celebrity has a paragraph description of his or her eating disorder and how it started. The site also has countless links to other sites similarly themed, and the CaringOnline site has a whole contains other important information about eating disorders. Media and Eating Disorders. Rader Programs. 16 Oct 2004 < http://mentalhealth.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http%3A% 2F%2Fwww.raderprograms.com%2Fmedia.htm>. Because of its vast information about various eating disorders, causes, and treatments, this site is incredible helpful. But perhaps most importantly, it has an extended section on the media’s affect on eating disorders. Furthermore, the section on the media has extensive, updated, statistics about both male and female eating disorders and the dieting fad in society. Starving for Attention. 20 Nov 2004. <http://www.anorexicweb.com/StarvingforAttention/starvingforattent.html>. There is little worthwhile information on this site, however there are some good pictures and accounts of famous people who have battled eating disorders. Otherwise, the site has too much opinion and not enough fact to be a valid source.
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