|
The Media's Effect on Body Image
Four out of five women are dissatisfied with their appearance. One in four third grade girls is currently on a diet. Adolescent girls are more afraid of gaining weight than cancer, nuclear war, or losing their parents (Media and). Why is society so concerned with having the perfect appearance? Who is to blame for instilling this belief in the minds of adolescents, both males and females, throughout the world? According to Alison Alexander, "Advertising and the mass media may play a part in creating and reinforcing a preoccupation with physical attractiveness and influence consumer perceptions of what constitutes an acceptable level of physical attractiveness" (53). For example, Marilyn Monroe, sex icon of the 1950s, was 5'5" tall and weighed 135 pounds. Actress Elizabeth Hurley was quoted as saying, “I’ve always thought Marilyn Monroe looked fabulous, but I’d kill myself if I was that fat” (Media and). Clearly, something has changed over fifty years, and that something is the media’s proposed idea of the perfect body. Viewing pictures of “thin-ideal” celebrities in television, magazines, or advertisements has been proven to lower self-esteem and body satisfaction and to cause extreme mood shifts (depressed or angry), which all ultimately lead to an increasing number of eating disorders, especially for adolescents (Myers 446). We will explore ways the media impacts the world’s perception of body image through advertisements, television, and magazines and more and the results of this new image, especially body dissatisfaction, thin-body ideals, and eating disorders. Because the media portrays both women and men in an unrealistic manner, incredibly thin or lean and overly muscular, people are increasingly becoming more displeased with their bodies, which can lead to lower self-esteem and body satisfaction. These results of media exposure tend to be more evident in women because the media instills the belief that it is a woman’s job to attract others (Groesz 2). Female models, for example, weigh 23% less than the average woman (Media and), and this is determined by Body Mass Index (BMI). BMI is used to determine a healthy weight, and can be skewed because it does not take muscle into account. With thin celebrities, especially models, BMI is an accurate and effective measurement. It is determined by taking one's weight, dividing it by height in inches twice, then multiplying by 703 (Dibattista 30). Likewise investigating the effects of the media often solely use women as test subjects. Studies, such as those conducted by Stice and Shaw (1994), found that “exposing young women to images of thin, attractive models increases body dissatisfaction and other negative feelings (Joshi 333). When Leora Pinhas conducted an experiment to determine the media’s effects on mood and body dissatisfaction, she used 118 female students\ and concluded that media images have a immediate impact on women's moods (225). Futhermore, when Ramona Joshi performed a similar experiment testing exposure to thin-body images, she used ninety-two undergraduate female students and deduced that self esteem was lowered after viewing media images (339). Both tests, however, provided evidence that the media had a negative effect on women, whether it be in mood swings or lowered self esteem. Because the media directs more of its propaganda towards women, the effects on woman are unmistakable. These studies, as well as others, determine that women exhibit lower self-esteem, extreme mood swings, and greater body dissatisfaction as a result of media images. Surprisingly, women are not the media’s only targets. Recent studies show that males are also affected by the distorted body images projected by the media. While women are subjected to clothing, food, and diet advertisements, males more often are exposed to exercise and weight lifting advertisements. The type of ad may be different, but the message is the same: the image seen is most desirable, no matter how unrealistic it may be. A recent experiment conducted by the University of Central Florida studied the reactions of 158 males to television advertisements containing images of “ideal” (lean and muscular) male body types. The results of the study indicate that exposure to such unrealistic images have a negative effect on males, such that the males’ muscle dissatisfaction and level of depression increased (Agliata 16). Exposure to neutral advertising, which do not include male images, resulted in a decrease in depression and no signs of body dissatisfaction in males (Agliata 17). Similarly, Renée Botta concluded that reading health and fitness magazines, which are geared towards males and emphasize increased muscularity, is linked with a higher risk of eating disorders and steroid abuse (396). For example, Playgirl centerfolds have become more like the “ideal” male body image in that the models are more muscular and toned, and even toy action figures are equipped with rippling biceps and six packs (Agliata 8). Though the media has a greater impact on women, its skewed body ideals also affect men. However, some people do not accept the notion that the media is to blame for lower self-esteem, greater body dissatisfaction or even increased eating disorders. Women’s Health Weekly reports a study stating, “This view seems overly simplistic, however ignoring the fact that women voluntarily expose themselves to thin media images…” (Simplistic 65). With the growth of the media in the last twenty years, it is impossible for anyone to complete avoid its images. Furthermore, even people who have minimal exposure to the media can develop aforementioned problems. Senior Lecturer of Psychology Marika Tiggemann of Flinders University deduced that "total television-viewing time was not related to body dissatisfaction nor drive for thinness” (Tiggemann 202). Instead, she performed an experiment that concluded that the type of media one is exposed to, not the amount, has a greater effect on the individual. Moreover, Health and Medicine Week reports, “Brief exposure to thin-ideal media images has been shown to have a…consistent negative impact on women and girls’ body dissatisfaction” (Media Exposure 18). Because women simply cannot avoid all media images and minimal media exposure can still greatly influence someone, the argument that women “voluntarily expose themselves to thin media images (Simplistic 65) is ineffective and irrelevant. An increasingly effective outlet for media is through television, whether it be programming, advertisements, or news segments. The average 13-24 year old views 13.6 hours of television a week (Viacom). Young adults’ rabid consumption of television allows the media to easily reach their audience. Constant viewing of thin body images has a strong impact on the minds of young adults, specifically, how they relate to the people and images that are being viewed. Exposure to particular programs, such as soap operas, movies, and especially music videos, is correlated with body image disturbance (Tiggemann 419). Individuals in their teen-aged years are especially susceptible to the media’s influence due to the gender identity development and sex role exploration that takes place during those years (Tiggemann 200). Similarly, it is during this period of life that women are most affected by body image (Groesz 1). Movies, and especially music videos, are tended for a young adult audience, making the message of the media more influential. The root of the problem with television’s influence on the body image of young adults rests in the type of physiques projected. The unrealistic body images in television programs and movies provide an equally unrealistic body ideal for the viewer; thus, repeated viewings of such images cements the idea that overly thin figures are normal and should be attained (Schooler 38). Because the rate of television consumption for young adults is relatively high, such images have the potential to be viewed often and instill the improper ideals in the minds of the audience (Tiggemann 420). A study conducted by Flinders University indicated that those who view television more often have a lower self esteem, and are thus are more likely to accept unreal body image on television (Tiggemann 426). Eighty percent of women who regularly view television express feelings of greater body dissatisfaction (Media and). HBO’s award winning series The Sopranos star Jamie Lynn-Siegler recently battled anorexia. Mary Kate Olsen of Full House and Two of a Kind underwent rehabilitation in the summer of 2004 to overcome an eating disorder. Calista Flockhart of Ally McBeal is under constant scrutiny for her unbelievably thin figure as is Courtney Cox of Friends. The female stars of popular television embody the ideal that perpetuates unrealistic body image and lead to lower body satisfaction and self esteem. The media also reaches audiences via magazines through written articles, advertisements, and spreads. Spreads and advertisements tend to be most eye-catching, yet written text plays a major role in the effect on the reader. Tiggemann noted a significant correlation between the increased reading of magazines and the acceptance of thin body image in her study regarding media exposure and body dissatisfaction (418). Periodicals such as Seventeen and YM, Your Magazine, which are intended for adolescent girls, feature stories each month about weight loss, body toning, curbing cravings, and how to emulate the look of famous celebrities. Shouldn’t females at that age be more concerned with the development of self and the enjoyment of life? The media makes thin body image a more pressing issue. The most recent issue of Seventeen.com (11/04) includes seven workout articles, a quiz titled “Do you hate your body?” and a detailed list of low-fat recipes provided by an “in house” chef. Other periodicals geared towards the more adult female include similar articles regarding weight loss and how to best obtain Julia Roberts’ or Cameron Diaz’s flat stomach. In addition, the interviews of prominent actresses, models, businesswomen and musicians in magazines such as Allure and Glamour always ask these infamous questions: What is your diet secret? How do you stay in shape while on tour? How can readers look like you? The articles aside, magazines are guilty of projecting a negative body image through featured advertisements and photos. Everyone knows that a picture speaks a thousand words. The photos used in magazines are a prime example of this adage; the message sent to readers is just as powerful as any full length article. The major culprit in promotion of thin body ideal images is fashion magazines, especially Cosmopolitan, Vogue, Mademoiselle, and Glamour (426). Women who regularly read fashion magazines are more susceptible to the internalization of thin body image (Tiggemann 256). The spreads and advertisements consist of unrealistically shaped bodies that are disproportionate and have become the norm of culture’s desired look. The thin body images projected are not often genuine, either. Airbrushing is a technique that is frequently used to create a more flawless, thin, or desirable image. While this practice is often used to touch up blotchy skin, to remove “red eye”, or to erase other unsightly blemishes, it is also employed to completely restructure human bodies as to make them appear more slender, muscular, or voluptuous. The cover of the July 2004 issue of Redbook featured a spliced picture of Julia Roberts, the headshot from a photo taken at the 2002 People’s Choice awards and the remainder of her body from a four year old photo (Freydkin 1). The explanation for the photo fusion? The publisher of Redbook said that the picture combination was done in order to create a more “popping” photo for the cover of the magazine (Freydkin 2). Similarly, actress Kate Winslet’s legs were unnaturally elongated for her GQ cover image for the February 2004 issue. The actress has been quoted saying that her legs in the original photos looked great and did not need to be altered (Freydkin 2). Many people contend that celebrities must be thin because their success depends on it, but stars like Kate Winslet, and especially Camryn Manheim, have spoken out against the media's overly thin body image and are examples of success without succumbing to the media's pressure. With the influence of the media via television, film, and periodicals regularly increasing, it is inevitable that those featured in the media will become well known and recognized, if they haven’t already. Such individuals are bound to play a role in the shaping of societal norms, as they are often in the public eye and their lives and activities are chronicled as a form of entertainment. This gentle exploitation of celebrities can be somewhat dangerous if their doings and lifestyles are not in accordance with what is safe, healthy, and socially acceptable. Though many celebrities, like Britney Spears, say that they do not want to be role models, their influence on youth is undeniable. Children develop celebrity role models and attempt to mimic both the behavior and image of that role model. Because the media is often the source of children's role models, its projection of thin body ideals reaches youth constantly. A specific group of celebrities that especially depicts unreal body image is models. Models are often used as marketing tools, and because the advertising industry finds that thin images sell more than do realistic body types, the average model is underweight by more than 20 percent. While the weight of models and celebrities decreases, the level of body dissatisfaction is on the rise (Halliwell 105). With such famous figures acting as role models for teenagers, it is alarming to consider what type of message about body image theses celebrities are sending to today’s youth. Consider Gisele Bundchen, Vogue’s Model of the Year 2003, who is 5’11” and weighs 115 pounds. These statistics categorize her as 25% below her ideal body weight. Kate Moss, cover girl for Calvin Klein and Rimmel Cosmetics, is 5’7” and weighs an astonishing 97 pounds. This “waif” like stature is 30% below ideal body weight for someone Moss’s size. The average model is 23% below her ideal body weight (Media and). A study conducted at Kenyon College concluded that after viewing media containing models, the body image of the subjects decreased significantly (Groesz 1). Furthermore, the more the participants had been exposed to media images containing models prior to the experiment, the higher the level of body dissatisfaction (Groesz 3). The influence of thin celebrities extends beyond the runway and the fashion magazine page to the music studio and the stage. Fiona Apple, whose waif-like physique has caused much controversy, attributes her extremely thin body to succumbing to anorexia after being raped (Starving). Apple has established herself as a musician and a songwriter and is thus a prominent figure in the music world. It is possible for fans to first identify with her music, and find a further connection through trying to emulate her body type. Other musicians, including Daniel Johns of Silverchair, Whitney Houston, and Victoria Beckham (Posh Spice of the Spice Girls) have all recently been criticized for their overly thin bodies, which are all a result of eating disorders (Celebrities). The immense influence that musicians have on fans poses a threat when an unhealthy body image is projected. However, some musical performers are naturally thin and do not necessarily try to promote thin body ideals. These musicians need to realize the impact they have on their fans and promote healthy body image rather than unrealistic thinness. Furthermore, voluptuous musicians, like Britney Spears and Mariah Carey, are often criticized for their size rather than praised for their curvy bodies. Clearly, thinness does not equate success in the music industry, and performers like Spears and Carey should help promote a more healthy and realistic body image. Unrealistic thinness runs rampant among the stars of the silver screen, as well. Cameron Diaz of There’s Something About Mary, The Mask, The Sweetest Thing, and the Charlie’s Angels films meets the Body Mass Index standards for anorexia with her tall and extremely thin body (Media and). Starlet Renee Zellwegger was encouraged to shed as much weight as possible for her role in Chicago. The result? An emaciated Zellwegger with ribcage, collarbones, and backbones clearly visible beneath her skin. This image was a stark contrast from Zellwegger in Bridget Jones' Diary, for which she had to gain over twenty pounds. Though Zellwegger's weight was that of an average woman, the media continuously commented on how "fat" she looked. Projecting a skin-and-bones image as attractive and desirable has become the mantra of influential celebrities involved in the media.
Why is the
influence of celebrities and models so strong? Susan Boon, Ph.D.,
professor of psychology at the University of Calgary, explains that
"It’s often hard to realize how much anyone influences us. Even if there's no possibility of interacting with an idol,
celebrity attachments can still affect people's behavior and feelings
about themselves” (Bennett).
Such a strong connection or fascination with prominent figures in
the media poses potential for striving to be like them, which ultimately
could prove to be quite unhealthy. However, some young women find the viewing of
thin models to boost their self image (Images 975).
A study led by author Ramona Joshi indicated that dieting women actually
experienced positive feelings about their own body image after viewing
photos of thin models. Psychology professor Peter Herman explains that
viewing such images helps dieters set a "fantasy goal" in terms of
their dieting achievements (Images 976). The fact
that women experience positive feelings after viewing such images is
surprising, considering the models featured were extremely thin and posing in
fashion magazines, which are notorious for containing rail thin
models. Using the models as inspiration or as a "fantasy
goal" only perpetuates the belief that to be beautiful, one must be
thin. Finding encouragement in such images is unhealthy and poses a
threat when the majority of female models are well below the ideal body
weight. In principle, the women in the study most likely found the
pictures to evoke positive feelings of body image because they themselves
have become trapped in the media's emphasis on glamorous thinness.
Their idea of beautiful has been warped by the obsession with thin. Perhaps the most active aspect of the media leading to body dissatisfaction and/or eating disorders is advertisements. Even in food advertisements, the media presents countless thin-body images and gives an unrealistic portrayal of both men and women’s bodies. Though the media insists that everyone should attain the perfect body, it sells food products, even high caloric food products, using thin models, a seemingly inconsistent technique. Similarly, Jennifer Nardozzi claims that because the media employs thin-body images to sell food, people “seem bombarded by contradictory media influences” (37). As with most media ideals, women are the most affected by media exploitation and contradiction. Though women are targeted to constantly improve their body image, Silverstein et al conducted a study of the forty-eight most popular magazines for males and females and concluded that the women’s magazines had almost ten times as many food advertisements as the men’s (Wilson 2). Furthermore, these advertisements consistently portray an unrealistic picture of women and oftentimes “reflect [body dissatisfaction] by depicting women as perpetually obsessed and dissatisfied with their body weight, size, and shape” (Wilson 3). For example, Fitness magazine published an advertisement for Jarlsberg Lite Cheese which showed a thin model in a short dress with the caption “Everybody could use a little less fat.” In addition, one of the former milk campaigns featured female celebrities like Daisy Fuentes and Neve Campbell with the patented milk moustaches and the caption “Guilty or not? Do you cross out the waist size on your jeans?” (Wilson 3). Though critics contend that products would not sell if advertised by overweight models, there is no reason that curvy or athletic models would not be as effective as an overly thin model. These advertisements are blatant examples of the media attempting to make women feel bad about their bodies; both portray already-thin models who are not fully satisfied with their bodies. Advertisements such as these rarely depict fat men or women directly but instead subtly represent the thin ideal. Another type of advertisement that the media uses to convey false body ideals is dieting products. Dieting plays an important role in present society; one in three women and one in four men are currently on a diet, and diet or diet-related products constitute a thirty-three billion dollar industry in America (Media and). Dieting advertisements often invoke a feeling of guilt and make people, especially women, fear or even loathe fat. Furthermore, because diet-related advertisements are often for low-fat or fat-free foods, they imply that high calorie foods are forbidden or should be avoided at all costs. One strategy that the media employs when selling low-fat foods is marketing the product as boring or tasteless, which seems to suggest that one cannot eat flavorsome foods while on a diet or that attaining the perfect body comes at a cost. For example, Molly McButter sells a fat-free, butter-like powder, and the latest campaign for this product states, “So healthy food actually tastes good.” Advertisements like this merely enhance body dissatisfaction and ultimately lead to something even more serious: eating disorders. American society is consistently gaining weight, which is posing a health problem, and the dieting industry has taken advantage of this. Unfortunately, dieting advertisements rarely appeal to overweight people and usually depict incredibly thin women or men. However, obese people or other people who need to diet for health reasons cannot relate to these thin images. Instead, the people who can relate are those of normal body weight who see an even thinner, more perfect image. For this reason, dieting has become rampant among varying ages and sizes, and there is no distinction in dieting advertisements about who truly needs to diet. The dieting industry has developed into a multi-billion dollar enterprise, and as with many products nowadays, the target audience is becoming younger and younger. Half of fourth grade girls have been on a diet (Media and), and one third of all eating disorders develop during the ages of eleven and fifteen (Katz). There are very few instances when a twelve year old girl would need to diet because of the high risks involved of dieting at such a young age. Lisa Groesz et al reported that “due to genetics and the physiology of weight regulation, only a few females can actually mold their bodies into the idealized slender shape” (2). The danger of developing an eating disorder certainly does not stop at age twelve: eighty-six percent of eating disorders occur before age twenty, and ten million females and one million males currently suffer from eating disorders in the United States (Katz). In the last twenty years, eating disorders have become more mainstream (Bulimia was only first diagnosed twenty years ago.) both because of Karen Carpenter's death from anorexia in 1983 and the media's unrealistic image of beauty that people want to match. People who reject the media’s supposed role in eating disorders raise the argument that if the media is to blame for eating disorders, why don't all people exposed to the media suffer from a disorder? For example, a study from Women’s Health Weekly speculated this exact question (Women’s 65). First, this criticism presumes that all women have the same emotional capacity and have the same eating patterns, prior to media influence. Obviously, neither of these is true. Many men and women suffer from mood swings or lower self-esteem, and as proven by studies (Pinhas 225), people with these self-image deficiencies have a greater risk of acquiring an eating disorder. Furthermore, Romana Joshi et al conducted an experiment testing media influence on restrained (those who are careful about dieting habits) and unrestrained eaters (not worried about dieting habits). The unrestrained eaters showed little negative reaction to media images, but the restrained eaters developed higher body dissatisfaction (Joshi 339). As shown by this experiment, there women who are not affected by the media because they have consciously made a decision to eat what they want, when they want it. But millions of women and men have not made this choice, and they are the ones susceptible to media influence. Overall, this criticism lacks validity because rarely does something apply to all people. One would not ask why every person who smokes does not get mouth or lung cancer, but opponents use a similar argument when defending the media. This condemnation is irrelevant, and one cannot deny the media’s connection with eating disorders. Though the media’s pressure to diet contributes to increasing eating disorders, the primary way the media affects eating disorders is by causing people to feel unhappy with their bodies and themselves. Psychology experiments have proven that low self esteem and body dissatisfaction are leading causes of eating disorders (Myers 446). In turn, countless studies have concluded that media exposure increases body dissatisfaction, lowers self-esteem, and causes drastic mood swings. Other studies have taken those results a step further and drawn the connection between these emotional changes and eating disorders: Anderson and DiDomenico (1992) found, “The media’s portrayal of a slim ‘ideal’ body for women has been linked to the increasing prevalence of dieting disorders” (King 341), while Tiggemann and Pickering concluded that “the current epidemic of body dissatisfaction and the emergence of eating disorders is a function of the sociocultural ideal of thinness” (Tiggemann 202). Moreover, Pinhas deduced, “Women feel angrier and have a greater depressed mood after looking at images of the thin ideal…[and] these images have a detrimental effect on women and may play a role in episodes of binge eating in response to negative mood status” (Pinhas 225). These examples constitute a fraction of the many that have affirmed the media’s role in developing eating disorders. Nona Wilson sums up the media’s responsibility well when she writes that “by normalizing body dissatisfaction and weight preoccupation, glorifying thinness, perpetuating unrealistic and unattainable standards of beauty, and encouraging a rigid diet mentality” (Wilson 7), the media greatly increases the risk of eating disorders. One girl, suffering from anorexia and weighing ninety-three pounds, had this to say before her third suicide attempt: “I feel fat all the time…but before I kill myself, I must be thin. I cannot let some undertaker see my fat, ugly body” (Claude-Pierre 68). Where did this girl gain her thin-body ideals? Why did she desire to be even thinner? The media.
|
